Hace unas semanas ya introdujimos brevemente la relatividad con nuestro artículo sobre la Paradoja de los gemelos, pero hoy vamos a introducirnos en profundidad en estas teorías tan fascinantes, que cambiaron el curso de la física y la forma en la que entendemos el concepto de espacio y tiempo.
A pesar de que muchas veces hablamos de la teoría de la relatividad, en realidad se trataron de dos teorías diferentes y complementarias publicadas por Albert Einstein con 10 años de diferencia. La teoría de la relatividad especial se publicó en 1905, y en ella se explicaba el movimiento de cuerpos en un sistema de referencia inercial para los cuales el efecto de la gravedad fuera despreciable. De ahí viene el termino de «especial», puesto que no puede aplicarse a todos los casos, solo bajo unas condiciones concretas.
En 1915, el profesor Einstein presentaba a la Academia Prusiana de Ciencias (Hoy la Academia de las ciencias de Berlín-Brandemburgo) su teoría general de la relatividad, en la que extendía su anterior trabajo generalizando la relatividad especial a casos donde la gravedad no fuera despreciable, introduciendo conceptos tan importantes como el principio de equivalencia, la curvatura espacio-tiempo, y el principio de covarianza generalizado.
Relatividad Especial
La teoría de la Relatividad especial fue publicada en 1905 en Annalen der Physik, en el artículo «Zur elektrodynamishce bewegter Körper»(Versión en inglés), en el cual Albert Einstein introdujo dos conceptos indispensables para la física moderna, expuestos en dos postulados que sirven de base para toda la teoría:
- Principio de Relatividad
- En todo sistema de referencia inercial, las leyes de la mecánica actúan por igual.
- Invarianza de la velocidad de la luz
- La velocidad de la luz es constante para todo observador, independientemente de la velocidad relativa del mismo con el foco emisor.
1. Principio de Relatividad
En primer lugar, debemos entender que un sistema inercial de referencia es aquel respecto del cual podemos aplicar la mecánica newtoniana sin necesidad de fuerzas ficticias que expliquen algunos de los movimientos.
Generalmente, los sistemas no inerciales son aquellos que presentan una aceleración, ya sea angular o lineal, con respecto a un sistema inercial. Por tanto, es derivado de esta aceleración presente en nuestro propio patrón de referencia (el no inercial) por lo que necesitamos de fuerzas ficticias para explicar algunos movimientos.
Tomemos como ejemplo una autocaravana en la que pretendemos irnos de vacaciones. En un momento en el que vamos a una velocidad constante por la carretera, observamos que las leyes de la mecánica se comportan en el interior del habitáculo exactamente igual que si estuviéramos en el salón de nuestra casa. Sin embargo, un instante después frenamos (la caravana sufre una aceleración lineal negativa) y entonces observamos un vaso caer sin que nada parezca haberlo tocado.
Si tomásemos la autocaravana como referencia, y por tanto no la consideramos en movimiento, deberíamos considerar una fuerza ficticia que hubiera volcado el vaso, la cual coincidiría con la aceleración del vehículo con respecto a la Tierra, o cualquier otro sistema inercial.
El primer principio implica que, siempre que tengamos como referencia un sistema inercial, nos es imposible saber si está en reposo o en movimiento a velocidad constante, puesto que las leyes de la mecánica actúan por igual en ambos casos. Es por esto que, comparando dos sistemas inerciales, no podemos distinguir cuál de los dos se mueve, si ambos lo hacen o si alguno está en reposo. Es por tanto imposible establecer un sistema preferente a otros, tomándolo como un sistema en reposo absoluto.
Volviendo a nuestro ejemplo anterior, si tomamos como referencia nuestra caravana mientras permanece a velocidad constante, bien podríamos decir que es la tierra la que se mueve con respecto a nosotros. Eso es lo que nos dice el principio de relatividad, que ningún sistema de referencia inercial tiene prioridad sobre otro.
2. Invarianza de la velocidad de la luz
Pasemos al segundo principio, la invarianza de la velocidad de la luz, que designamos como la constante c (esta es, al menos, la velocidad de la luz en el vacío, con un valor de 3*10^8 m/s aproximadamente) y que siempre nos devolverá el mismo valor independientemente de nuestra velocidad relativa con respecto al foco emisor de la luz cuya velocidad estemos tratando de medir.
Esta afirmación es totalmente contraintuitiva. Imaginemos que a nuestra autocaravana le sigue un coche de cerca, de forma que nos alejamos del coche (que también está en movimiento) a 20 m/s. Si tomasemos como referencia nuestro vehículo, diríamos que la velocidad del auto es exactamente esa, 20 m/s. Esta será la velocidad que midamos, aunque para un observador que viera pasar a ambos midiera unas velocidades de 60 y 80 m/s respectivamente.
Sin embargo esto no ocurre igual. Imaginemos que hemos logrado avanzar nuestra tecnología y ahora pretendemos dar una vuelta en nuestra autocaravana espacial, perfecta para un pic-nic en la Luna. Nos desplazamos a 0,1 c (es decir, un 10% de la velocidad de la luz) en el momento en que un haz de luz enviado desde la Tierra nos adelanta. A pesar de la velocidad tan elevada que llevamos, la velocidad relativa de la luz para un observador en el interior del vehículo será exactamente c, de forma igual que para el observador situado en la Tierra.
Estos postulados nos obligan a cambiar completamente nuestra suposición de un espaciotiempo estático con un sistema de referencia claro. En cambio, implican que cada velocidad ha de ser siempre asociada a un sistema de referencia respecto del cual se mide, al no poder establecerse un punto absoluto de referencia, como sí se ha logrado hacer para otras magnitudes. Sin embargo, precisamente la única velocidad invariante respecto del observador, la velocidad de la luz, es la que sugiere un espacio-tiempo que puede dilatarse y contraerse, pues de otra forma no serían posibles semejantes observaciones desde puntos que se mueven a velocidades diferentes.
En el caso de nuestra autocaravana espacial, el tiempo para dicho sistema de referencia debe dilatarse respecto del de la Tierra para que la luz que observan tenga la misma velocidad que aquella que se ha observado desde la Tierra.
Estas no son todas las implicaciones de la Relatividad Especial, pero si sus dos postulados base desde los que se construirá todo el armazón que permitió desarrollar los principios creados a partir de estas ideas, de los cuales hablaremos en mayor profundidad en artículos dedicados especificamente, pues son complejos y densos, tanto de explicar como de entender.
En cuanto a la Relatividad General, de la que ya adelantamos algo en nuestro artículo sobre la gravedad, nos os preocupéis, pues lo prometido es deuda y regresaremos a hablar de ella en dos semanas. El próximo artículo estará especialmente dedicado a explicar cómo Einstein, en 1915, expandió y generalizó su teoría de la relatividad especial, de ahí el nombre, haciendola extensiva a sistemas donde la masa y los efectos gravitatorios si eran tomados a consideración. ¡Os esperamos en el siguiente artículo!
36 ideas sobre “Relatividad especial, referencia inercial y luz contraintuitiva”
¿Qué pasó con el artículo de Relatividad General?
Lo tenemos pendiente. Es un tema complejo y queremos que se entienda pero también ser rigurosos, y explicarlo bien, aunque lo hagamos solo en lo conceptual. No te preocupes, que no le queda mucho.
Moon and earth (rewritten again)
Allow me to rewrite again.
Moon and earth are supposed to be two-body problem. Also it is supposed that the common center of gravity of moon and earth is situated outside the earth. And the orbit of earth is a perfect circle, and earth is a perfect sphere. In the illustration, the surface of earth closest to moon is A and the surface farthest from moon is B. At the two points A and B, the strength of resultant forces of moon’s gravity and centrifugal force (of earth) will be the same (act to opposite directions). Otherwise, earth cannot stay on orbit of perfect circle. This will explain that the level of high tide twice a day are the same.
Composition of the vector : Free fall
Vector of gravity and inertial force is possible to compose. It seems to show that the two are inviolable and non-interference each other (it will be the same on two gravity). It will be the same also on vector of gravity and inertial force that act at an optional point of an elevator cabin in free fall.
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Equivalence principle
Situation setting of free fall requests the existence of inertial force and gravity. Newton’s two laws each guarantees. It is possible that at a point of structure of an elevator, resultant force of the two forces disappears. But it is like a number 777. It will not be the subject of argument.
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Lorentz contraction
Plain waves of light (wavelength is constant) are coming from the upper right 45 degrees. Two bars of the same length are moving to the right and the left at the same speed. The number of waves hitting the bars is the same. Lorentz contraction is unthinkable. And also, time dilation will be denied.
Aether
Speed of light relative to mediums (water or air) is constant. Speed of light relative to aether (physical substance) is constant also. This is shown by aberrations.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
“It can be safely said that gravity of other planets has no effect on the perihelion shift of Mercury”. It’s in a website.
Imagine that with long radius of orbit of Mercury, the space of the solar system is divided into left and right. The probability that other planets exist on the two is equal. There will be no shift of perihelion in one direction at constant speed (common view is wrong).
But main cause of perihelion shift of Jupiter and Saturn will be mutual effect of gravity. Each perihelion is shifted every moment.
Free fall
Every inertial force is measurable. Every gravitational force is measurable also. Principally. In an elevator in free fall, there is no exception.
Lorentz contraction
In a moving passenger car, MM experiment is being done. Between two light pathes diverged by a half mirror, there is considerable difference in length. Lorentz contraction will not stand up.
Time dilation
Two passenger cars are passing each other. At the front of side wall of each car, the same light source (frequency is the same also) is settled and light ray is emitted backward at 45 degrees. Each ray is reflected by mirror sticked on the side wall wholely and is coming back. Time dilation is impossible.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
Main cause of perihelion shift of Mercury is said to be gravity of the other planets. But position of other planets move (also position of perihelion of Mercury moves). If so, values 5.75 secarc/year is unthinkable. Main cause
will be in Mercury itself. And also it will be the same on values of perihelion shift of the other planets.
Perihelion shift of Mercury is said to be 5.75 secarc. Sometimes it is shown as 575 arcsec/100 years. Only on Mercury ? Because the value is unreliable ? For evasion ?
Gravity lense
Gravity lenses are said to be a positive evidence of GR. However if gravity of gravitational source can be estimated, which is real GR or Newton’s theory will be clarified.
To the upper right at 45 degrees in still water, plane waves of light is propagated. Above the water surface is vacuum. Value of inclination of waves in vacuum can be determined. And also speed of light waves relative to moving observer who moves in vacuum horizontally or vertically can be determined.
Is speed of light constant !?
Howout when there is air above the water surface ? When air is stationary relative to the water, apparent difference in looks will not be found.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
There is a model of Mercury. A long lod penetrates a true sphere and at the both ends of the lod, weights are set. This model is rotating horizontally and is moving on the orbit of Mercury (two planes fall on). Main forces acting on the weights are gravity of the sun and inertial force (centrifugal force). And each force acting on the outside weight and inside weight is different.
Inertial force pulls the orbit to the outside. But actual orbit of Mercury is pulled to the inside. Gravity of the sun acting on the two weights is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (not come out even. not plus minus zero). In Mercury, the action of gravity will be superior.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
The perihelion shift of the earth is 11.45 arcsec / year. Main cause will be its size (size of sphere). It is the same to Mercury. In addition, the earth has a moon as a satellite that Mercury does not have. The inertial force of the moon and gravity of the sun acting on the moon are also considerable. And like Mercury, effect of other planets must be slight and unstable.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
“It can be safely said that gravity of other planets has no effect on the perihelion shift of Mercury”. It’s in a website.
Imagine that with long radius of orbit of Mercury, the space of the solar system is divided into left and right. The probability that other planets exist on the two is equal. There will be no shift of perihelion in one direction at constant speed (common view is wrong).
But main cause of perihelion shift of Jupiter and Saturn will be mutual effect of gravity. Each perihelion is shifted every moment.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
“It can be safely said that gravi7ty of other planets has no effect on the perihelion shift of Mercury”. It’s in a website.
Imagine that with long radius of orbit of Mercury, the space of the solar system is divided into left and right. The probability that other planets exist on the two is equal. There will be no shift of perihelion in one direction at constant speed (common view is wrong).
But main cause of perihelion shift of Jupiter and Saturn will be mutual effect of gravity. Each perihelion is shifted every moment.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
This is the top of tall tower. Two rods of equal mass and different length are arranged vertically (heigth of center of gravity is the same). Now, two rods start to fall at the same time. The fall of center of gravity will not be the same. Because the strength of gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This will be the main cause for perihelion shift of Mercury.
Perihelion shift of Mercury
Let’s reconsider the main cause of perihelion shift again. On Mercury or Venus, main cause will be the size of sphere. On Earth or Mars, effect of satellite is added. On asteroids each, effects of size is negligible. On Jupiter or Saturn each, the powerful and unstable effect of the other will act. On Uranus or Neptune each, slight and unstable effect of the other all planets will act. Anyway, common view on Mercury is wrong.
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Perihelion shift of Mercury
Suppose that Mercury revolving is devided in two (hemisphere facing the sun A and the other B). Main forces acting on the two are gravity of the sun and inertial force (centrifugal force). Inertial force is A<B and gravity of the sun is A>B.
Yes, each force acting on the outside and inside is different. Inertial force pulls the orbit to the outside. But actual orbit of Mercury is pulled to the inside. Gravity of the sun acting on the two is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (not come out even. not plus minus zero). In Mercury, the action of gravity will be superior.
YAll of propagation of light (I say again)
Bradley found annual aberration on gamma star : Eltanin. In books, picture of ellipse is shown. However, this ellipse must be warped because of secular aberration (not only Eltanin). With this warp, the motion of solar system relative to aether must be clarified.
Light emitted from a source in outer space will follow the emission theory. But for a few seconds only. The corner cube settled on the surface of the moon proves this.
The motion of an observer relative to light waves is the same as the motion of an observer relative to sound waves. Light waves are light waves. An observer is an observer. And everything follows Galilean transformation.
The speed of light in medium is c/n. The MM experiment (done in air) is nonsense.
Perihelion shift of Mercury (the truth)
In Mercury (in terms of Mercury’s size), the non-uniformity of the Sun’s gravity may be the main cause of
perihelion shift. In artificial satellites, the effects of non-uniformity of the Earth’s gravity (the position of the center of mass and the center of gravity are different) are also mentioned.
Perihelion shift of Mercury (rewritten)
Mercury is moving on the revolution orbit. The sun’s gravity is equal to the centrifugal force. Because the two are action and reaction. Following are some explanations. Centrifugal force follows Mercury’s mass. But in addition, gravity is affected by the size of Mercury (and acting position of gravity is different). These are caused by the non-uniformity of gravity (in the space occupied by Mercury). And after perihelion passage, orbit will be pulled inward (from its original orbit).
High tide level twice a day is the same. Gravity and centrifugal force caused by the moon will be action and reaction. Centrifugal force is not fictitious.
Moon and Earth (additional)
Suppose the moon and the earth is two-body problem. And imagine, the earth is rotating (revolving) around the common center of gravity with the moon. The orbit is a perfect circle. If lunar attractive force acting on the center of gravity of the earth is action, the centrifugal force of the earth is a reaction. And the strength of the two will be equal. This will be also true for the earth as a whole.
In an illustration, the earth is drawn next to moon. Imagine two points on the surface of the earth closest to the moon and farthest from the moon. The difference between lunar attractive force and the centrifugal force of the earth at above two points will be almost equal and therefore the resultant force will also be almost equal. This will explain that the level of high tides twice a day are almost equal.
Note: Is the law of action and reaction valid for celestial bodies on elliptical orbits?
Moon and earth (rewritten again)
Allow me to rewrite again.
Moon and earth are supposed to be two-body problem. Also it is supposed that the common center of gravity of moon and earth is situated outside the earth. And the orbit of earth is a perfect circle, and earth is a perfect sphere. In the illustration, the surface of earth closest to moon is A and the surface farthest from moon is B. At the two points A and B, the strength of resultant forces of moon’s gravity and centrifugal force (of earth) will be the same (act to opposite directions). Otherwise, earth cannot stay on orbit of perfect circle. This will explain that the level of high tide twice a day are the same.
Moon and earth (an essay)
As moon passes overhead, high tide (one of two high tides a day) will come after a short delay. But why ? Why is seawater with a low specific gravity bulged ? Newton imagined that moon will continue falling. Earth will continue falling also. And seawater will cotinue falling too. So, it doesn’t matter how specific gravity is.
Pelihelion shift of Mercury (an essay)
Some wide binaries are separated by one light years. And many wide binaries are at most (as much as) by 1000 au. These motion will be treated as mass points (a point). On the other hand, there are many close binaries. What are physicists who repeat nonsense on perihelion shift of Mercury ?
Moon and earth (an essay)
Moon and earth are supposed to be two-body problem. In the illustration, the surface of earth closest to moon is A and the surface farthest from moon is B. At the two points A and B, the strength of resultant forces of moon’s gravity and centrifugal force (of earth) will be the same (act to opposite directions). It will be proved by the sameness of high tides.
Also it will be proved by stability of orbits of each body.?
Perihelion shift of Mercury (again)
The main forces acting on Mercury are attractive force of sun and centrifugal force only. Hemisphere of Mercury facing sun is supposed to be A and the other hemisphere is B. The attractive force of the sun acting on the two will be A>B, and the centrifugal force will be B>A. From the look of the perihelion shift, the attractive force acting on Mercury as a whole will be slightly stronger.
Perihelion shift of Mercury (an essay)
A celestial body called Vulcan is revolving on orbit of Mercury. It has the same mass and revolution cycle as Mercury. And diameter is twohold (the both stars are uniform in density). Since the sun’s gravitational field is non-uniform, the sun’s gravity acting on both stars will be slightly larger in Vulcan and smaller in Mercury. The value of perihelion shift also likely will be similar. In short, the size of the celestial body (close to the gravitational source like Mercury) will be the main reason for the perihelion shift.
Imagine a cone with evenly spaced concentric circles on its surface. The non-uniformity of gravity will be exponential non-uniformity.
Perihelion shift of Mercury (an essay)
On planets, it is said that centrifugal force caused by orbital motion is balanced with attractive force of sun (and the action and reaction are equal). On Mercury, it will stand up also. But exactly ? Solar wind or some other solar-derived substances seem to go down slightly speed of orbital motion of Mercury (one of perturbation ?). If so, centrifugal force will be reduced accordingly. On the other hand, attractive force of sun will not be affected at all. This may be the main reason for the perihelion movement of Mercury.
Propagation of gravity
The propagation of gravity will be done in an instant. For this, here are two reasons. One reason is that two-body problem, many-body problem are true for celestial bodies. The other reason is that the whole solar system is in an uniform linear motion and planets are in elliptical revolution on their revolution planes.
Inertial force, centrifugal force, centripetal force (an essay)
Between accelerated motion and non-accelerated motion (uniform linear motion), there is an immovable distinction. And accelerated motion is always accompanied by an inertial force (corresponding to the vector of motion). These are based on the existence of absolute rest frame.
A motion of a disk rotating is an acceleration motion. And the disk is accompanied by an inertial force called centrifugal force. It is said that centrifugal force depends on the situation of observer. But the physical phenomenon (centrifugal force) cannot be influenced by observers. Centrifugal force will show the same value to everyone.
The wiki defines centripetal force as “the force that moves an object in a curved motion”. But is that the correct definition? Is mere external force centripetal force also? Isn’t tension, tensile stress, gravity, etc. all the same? Is there any commonalities (grouped together)?
Centrifugal force : reconsidering
Two mass points a and b (with large difference of mass) are in motion of two-body problem (a large, b small). One picture is in outer space, and the knot of a,b is gravity (b is in a circular motion). The other picture is on a plane (no friction), and the knot is tension of a string (the mass of the string is zero). In the two pictures, the centrifugal force of b is a vector that is on the extension line of a,b. The reaction is gravity in one picture and tension of the string in the other picture. Where and how is the centripetal force?
Tension of the string between a and b is constant. Gravity is not constant.
Constancy of speed of light
Light of a star arriving in space is being reflected by a mirror. Speed of reflected light relative to the mirror is c. Speed of incident light relative to the mirror is also c? Since f of the two lights is the same, λ is also the same?